The Works of the Flesh,
Part 2
1989 PSN
by Taylor A. Joyce
12 Dec 2020 **
"They which do such things shall not inherit the kingdom of God"
(Galatians 5:21).
What a sobering thought! Here, as elsewhere (1 Corinthians 6:9-11; Ephesians 5:5) the apostle solemnly warns that there are certain activities (he calls them "works of the flesh") which preclude the practitioner from inheriting the kingdom of God.
Such a prospect is ample motivation to carefully study the "works of the flesh." We need to know both their names and their nature, so we can nail them to the cross (Galatians 5:24).
There are fifteen specific works identified in this passage. The list, however, is not exhaustive. Paul's use of the expression "and such like" at the end of his catalog indicates that there are many similar activities as repulsive and damning as those specified here.
But why does Paul denominate these activities "works of the flesh?" Was he differentiating between sins originating in the flesh as opposed to those arising in the spirit (2 Corinthians 7:1)? Was he making a distinction between sinful works and sinful thoughts (Matthew 15:19)? The answer is not entirely clear.
What is Meant by Works?
But, it is clear that Paul's enumeration in Galatians 5:19-21 consists of activities — of things people habitually do. First, he calls them "works" from the Greek ergon. Thayer defines the word as follows: "1. business, employment, that with which anyone is occupied . . . 3. an act, deed, thing done: the idea of working is emphasized in opp. to that which is less than work."
Second, Paul says, "The works of the flesh are manifest. . ." ("open to sight, visible"—Vine) Deeds are open to sight and visible. Thoughts, beliefs and motives are not. Hence, the "works of the flesh" must be overt actions rather than covert attitudes.
This is further confirmed by a grammatical construction found in these verses. William Barclay explains:
“When a Greek abstract noun is used in the plural it often means manifestations or demonstrations or examples of that quality which the singular noun denotes. For instance, thumos, which is the singular form, means "temper," and thumoi, which is the plural form means "outbursts of temper." Phthonos means “envy," and phthonoi means "displays of envy." Many of the words in the list of works of the flesh are actually plural forms and mean displays and acts of the quality which they denote.”
Finally, Paul concludes by saying, "They which do such things shall not inherit the kingdom of God." It is tragic to commit a single act of sin. But, Paul's concern here is with the repetitive act. As Wuest says,
“The word "do" is from prasso which means "to do, to practice." It is a durative in action, thus speaking of the habitual practice of such things, which indicates the character of the individual. The Word of God bases its estimation of a person's character, not upon his infrequent, out-of-the-ordinary actions, but upon his habitual ones.”
What is Flesh?
That leads us to ask: "What is flesh?" "What Paul meant by the flesh . .. is not easy to understand ... for he very obviously does not use it always in the same way. He uses it in many different connections and with many different connotations . .. It is a word of which there is no adequate English translation, a word of which the meaning cannot be sharply and simply defined" (Barclay). Vine shows thirteen different shades of meaning.
When used in its literal sense, flesh simply means the body of a fish, a bird, a beast, or a man (1 Corinthians 15:39). In our text, however, the word has an ethical meaning. "For Paul the flesh stood for all the weakness, all the inadequacy, all the liability to sin, which are inherent in human nature without Christ. The idea is the helplessness, the fallibility, even the sinfulness of human nature without Christ" (Barclay). Vincent agrees that "flesh" has "a suggestion of weakness, frailty, mortality."
Commenting on Romans 8:7, Coffman says, " 'In the flesh' is here reference to the condition that exists when the soul rejects its Creator’s sacrifices all hopes of immortality and of the eternal world, and decides to makes the present life of flesh it's one and only concern."
According to Thayer, flesh "has an ethical sense and denotes mere human nature, the earthly nature of man apart from divine influence, and therefore prone to sin and opposed to God."
Vincent says,
“Flesh is the human nature without the divine Spirit; the state of the creature before or in contrast with his reception of the divine element whereby he becomes a new creature in Christ: the whole being of man as it exists and acts apart from the influence of the Spirit. It properly characterizes, therefore, not merely the lower forms of sensual gratification, but all the highest developments of the life estranged from God, whether physical, intellectual or aesthetic.”
Carl Ketcherside says,
"The flesh" is simply "the lower nature," and the word is so translated in the New English Version. The flesh is man pursuing his own stubborn way, rejecting the guidance of the Spirit, and resisting the Lordship of Jesus. It is life undisciplined and unrestrained by the power of God, asserting itself without reference to the divine will or purpose. Men who never committed an act of sexual impropriety may be walking in the flesh as certainly as the most flagrant adulterer.”
Ketcherside goes on to say,
“To "walk after the flesh" means more than simply to cater to passion. It entails this, but it means to live in such a state that Christ is left out of consideration. He is ignored. Decisions arc made, and steps are taken without recourse to the demands of God. No authority is recognized except that of one's own wish and pleasure.”
A study of the "works of the flesh" is fraught with both danger and difficulty. The difficulty (as we have already seen) stems from the fact that many of the words used to describe them are susceptible of various shades of meaning, and it is hard to arrive at exact definitions.
The danger lies in the way the mind works. It has a tendency to mold behavior out of its meditations. Solomon provides a double warning. "Keep thy heart with all diligence; for out of it are the issues of life" (Proverbs 4:23). "For as he thinketh in his heart, so is he" (Proverbs 23:7). Jesus also says, "For out of the heart proceed evil thoughts, murders, adulteries." (Matthew 15:19).
It is imperative that we remember that we are studying these works of the flesh in order to inactivate them, not to indulge in them. As Mollill said, "We will be sitting at the campfires of the enemy, but all to learn better how to defeat him." We are seeking to overcome them. We dare not allow them to overcome us.
We are all comprised of both a human and a divine nature.
“I'm a man, and a man's a mixture
Right down from his very birth;
For part of him comes from heaven,
And part of him comes from earth.”
But the part that comes from heaven must be dominant. The part that comes from earth must be subjugated.
The secret to successful living is to learn to "walk in the Spirit" (Galatians 5:13)." 'Walk' is the favorite biblical metaphor to describe the whole course of man's life, including his conduct toward God and his treatment of his fellow men" (The Interpreter's Bible). And according to Paul, so long as we walk in the Spirit, we "shall not fulfill the lusts of the flesh."
Works of the Flesh
Let us look then at eight selected works not covered in the previous study.
- Uncleanness.Because this word is sometimes listed with sexual sins, it is assumed to refer to sexual improprieties. Yet, this seems too narrow a definition. Thayer says the word has reference to "the impurity of lustful, luxurious, profligate living." Barclay says it "stands for a moral depravity" which has the following characteristics: "It is the quality of that which is soiled and dirty . . . In this impurity there is a certain repulsive quality. It awakes disgust and loathing in any decent person who looks at it . . . In this word there remains the idea of that which separates a man from God." Scant wonder that "God hath not called us into uncleanness, but unto holiness" (1 Thessalonians 4:7). "But fornication, and all uncleanness, or covetousness, let it not be once named among you, as becometh saints" (Ephesians 5:3). ,
- Lasciviousness.This sin finds its source in an evil heart (Mark 7:22). It is characteristic of one who has not yet been converted to Christ (1 Peter 4:3), although a Christian may also be guilty. False teachers may turn "the grace of God into lasciviousness" (Jude 4). "And many shall follow their pernicious ways (lasciviousness); by reason of whom the way of truth shall be evil spoken of” (2 Peter 2:2). Thayer uses eight synonyms in defining this term: "unbridled lust, excess, licentiousness, lasciviousness, wantonness, outrageousness, shamelessness, insolence." Vine says it "denotes excess, licentiousness, absence of restraint, indecency, wantonness . . . The prominent idea is shameless conduct." One is inclined to agree with Barclay:
- Variance.The Greek word here is ens, and it is defined by Thayer as "contention, strife, wrangling." Vine adds that it "is the expression of enmity." It is twice rendered "debate" in the King James Version (Romans 1:29; 2 Corinthians 12:20). However, it does not refer to a debate in the sense of public discussion of religious issues, unless the discussion degenerates into contentious wrangling.
- Seditions.The Greek word here is dichostasia. Thayer defines it: "to stand apart, dissension, division." Barclay says, "The word denotes a state of things in which men are divided, in which feuds flourish, and in which unity is destroyed . . . a state in which all community, all fellowship, and all togetherness are gone." It is a "work of the flesh" (Galatiaans 5:20), It Is evidence that "ye are yet carnal . . . and walk as men" (1 Corinthians 3:3). It is"contrary to the doctrine which ye have learned" (Romans 16:17). The doctrine that we have learned is that Jesus prayed for the oneness of His followers (John 17:21); and that He died to reconcile both Jew and Gentile "unto God in one body ... therefore ye are ... fellow citizens ... and of the household of God . . . builded together for an habitation of God through the Spirit" (Ephesians 2:16, 19, 22).
- Heresies.This is a transliteration of the Greek word hairesis which, according to Barclay, means "an act of choosing or a choice . . . most commonly it denotes a body of people . . .who have all made the same choice . . . It is the breaking up of the unity of the Church into cliques who * shut their circle to all but their own number." Vine says it denotes "an opinion, especially a self-willed opinion, which is substituted for submission to the power of truth, and leads to division and the formation of sects, Galatians 5:20."
- Drunkenness.Vine says the original word (methe) "denotes drunkenness, habitual intoxication." Billy Graham says, "This Greek word means overindulgence in alcohol." He adds that alcohol"is a self-inflictcd impediment that springs from 'a man taking a drink, a drink taking a drink and drink taking the man.' " Barclay and others have noted that drinking wine in a very diluted form was socially acceptable in the ancient world, but drinking to excess was always viewed as abhorrent and utterly shameful. He says, "It hardly occurred to (the ancient world) either to enjoin or to practice total abstinence."
- Revellings.This word occurs only three times in the New Testament (Galatians 5:21; Romans 13:13; 1 Peter 4:3), and each time it is associated with excessive drinking. Thayer says it describes "a nocturnal and riotous procession of half-drunken and frolicsome fellows . . . used generally of feasts and drinking parties that are protracted till late at night and indulge in revelry." Vine defines it as a "carousal, the concomitant and consequence of drunkenness." Barclay says, "It describes the kind of revelry which lowers a man's self and is a nuisance to others." He also says it "expresses a lustful excess in physical and sexual pleasure which is offensive to God and to man alike."
- And such like.This expression, according to Vine, means "like, resembling, such as, the same as." He says a literal rendering of the words here in Galatians 5:21 would be "and the (things) similar to these." This category of works of the flesh is broad enough to include virtually every sin in the New Testament.
“In many ways aselgeia (The Greek word translated lasciviousness—taj) is the ugliest word in the list of NT sins. . .the man in whose soul aselgeia dwells is so much in the grip of sin, so much under its domination, that he does not care what people say or think so long as he can gratify his evil desires. He is the man who is lost to shame.”
In another of his writings Barclay said: "Aselgeia indicates a love of sin so reckless and so audacious that a man has ceased to care what God or man thinks of his actions." Sin is most harmful to that person who sees no harm in it. Or, as Bartlett put it: "We are most hurt by sin when we are least hurt by it." What an apt description of a lascivious person!
"A morbid fondness for controversy and disputes and strife about words" (1 Timothy 6:4, Amp.), can indeed produce strife (variance). Hence, Paul's admonition in Titus 3:9, "But avoid foolish questions, genealogies, and contentions, and strivings about the law, for they are unprofitable and vain." This word occurs nine times in the New Testament.
And although Barclay misstates the number of occurrences, he does make an observation worthy of our careful consideration.
“But the really significant fact about Paul's use of the word ens is that four out of its six occurrences are connected with life in the church. Three of them come from the Corinthian letters (1 Corinthians 1:11, 3:3; 2 Corinthians 12:20). It is eris which divides the Corinthian church into sects and parties, claiming to be of Cephas, of Apollos, of Paul and of Christ. It is eris which has split the church, and which has brought enmity where there should be love. Since Christians may be especially prone to variance, they must be especially prepared to quell it each time it rears its head.”
Paul summarized the doctrine of Scripture with reference to unity: "Now I beseech you, brethren, by the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, that ye all speak the same thing, and there there be no divisions among you; but that ye be perfectly joined together in the same mind and in the same judgment" (1 Corinthians 1:10). And the Spirit makes it the responsibility of every Christian to "be eager and strive earnestly to guard and keep the harmony and oneness of (and produced by) the Spirit in the binding power of peace" (Ephesians 4:3, Amp). We must take that responsibility seriously.
“It is perfectly true that often a Christian has to stand alone, but a man will do well to examine himself when he finds that the opinions he holds are separating him from the community of which he forms a part. He may be right, but it is a grave responsibility to be a cause of division in any church or community. Before he separate himself from others a man ought to remember the solemn words of Cromwell to the intransigent Scots: "I beseech you by the bowels of Christ, think it possible that you may be mistaken."
However, Buchanan says, "It is obviously to separation, rather than to error, the term specifically and directly applies" (Quoted by Bales in Soils and Seeds of Sectarianism). Alexander Campbell agreed: "Still, in its scriptural application, whether used by Luke, Paul, or Peter, (and it is found in no other writer) it never relates to doctrine, tenet, opinion, or faith. There is not, in sacred usage, any tenet, or doctrine, which is called heresy, or sect. . . It is now still more evident that heresies are not mere opinions, tenets, or theories." Barclay noted: "The tragedy of life is that people who hold different views very often finish up by disliking, not each others' views, but each other. It should be possible to differ with a man and yet remain friends." Campbell concluded his dissertation on heresy bysaying,
“It behooves all men, then, who wish to be approved by the Lord at his coming, to be up and doing to purge and cleanse the Christian profession from every root and branch of sectarianism, and to endeavor to destroy those destructive sects that have been a sort of Pandora's box to the human race; that filled the profession with hypocrites, the world with infidels, and retarded for so many centuries the conversion of both Jews and Gentiles to the Christian faith . . . We need neither telescopes nor microscopes to detect heresies in the New Testament sense of that word. They are neither more nor less than sects—plain, palpable sects and parties. Every party in Christendom, without respect to any of its tenets, opinions, or practices, is a heresy, a schism—unless there be such a party as stands exactly upon the Apostles' ground.”
Billy Graham also affirmed that "teetotalism or nonteetotalism cannot be proven from Scriptures." Barclay concedes, however, that total abstinence may be a Christian duty despite the lack of definite statements and prohibitions of Scripture. Citing the great principle laid down by Paul in Romans 14:21 and 1 Corinthians 8:9, 13, Barclay says, “the argument (that total abstinence is required by Scripture) cannot be based on definite injunctions of Scripture; only in the principle that it is not right to claim permission to indulge in any pleasure which can be the ruin of someone else." That drunkenness involves excessive drinking is suggested by thy use of a Hebrew synonym in Ezekiel 23:32-33 where it is said that drunkenness results from drinking from a "cup deep and large . . . it containeth much."
And who can forget the graphic description of drunkenness supplied by Isaiah (28:7-8): "But even these reel from wine and stagger from strong drink . . . they are confused from wine, they stagger and are gone astray through strong drink; they err in vision, they stumble (their speech is slurred—taj) when pronouncing judgment. For all the tables are full of filthy vomit." Anyone who has ever been around a drunk will certainly recognise that picture. Those who recommend "social drinking" today should consider two facts. First, the weakest alcoholic beverage sold today is probably stronger than any beverage consumed anywhere in the world in Bible times. Second, the human tragedies resulting from alcohol abuse. One of the better summations is provided by Jerry Moffitt:
“64% of all homicides are alcohol related; 30% of all suicides; 20% private, fatal air crashes; 50% of fatal car wrecks. Each year 28,000 of the above die due to alcohol. Then we include 58% of the fire death, 45% of all drownings, and 20% of all narcotic deaths. Right now 10% of the people in the U.S. are alcoholics. That is about 9,000,000. It is estimated that 28 million American children live in the total abuse caused by alcoholic homes . . . Alcohol is deadly, affecting the liver, muscles, bones, stomach, mouth, throat, and pancreas. It causes heart disease, destroys brain tissue, and causes personality disorders. There are due to it, 8,000 teen deaths per year, while 40,000 teens annually are disfigured and maimed.”
Need more be said? An activity that can do so much damage in the here and now, and bar you from the Kingdom of heaven after a while, must be avoided. Period! And while it is trite, it is still true—the person who never takes that first drink will never be drunk.
And in spite of the conviction expressed earlier that the works of the flesh involve deeds rather than thoughts, it is conceivable that the words "and such like" may even encompass the thoughts, lusts, attitudes and traits of character in their capacity as inceptive actions. If so, then the despisers of those that are good (2 Timothy 3:3) would find a place here. They simply have no love for those who are (and that which is) good. Inordinate affection and evil concupiscence (Colossians 3:5) would likewise be covered—the former referring to passionate desires and the latter, the more comprehensive term, referring to all manner of lusts and desires. The double-minded man (James 1:8; 4:8) would also be here, vacillating between sin and sanctification, faith and doubt, flesh and Spirit. Evil surmisings (1 Timothy 6:4), inferences resting upon inconclusive evidence, will become words of the flesh as they lead to a rejection of "the words of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the doctrine which is according to godliness" (1 Timothy 6:3). Evil thoughts (James 2:4), perverse reasonings that result in showing respect of persons, will also make the list.
Evil speaking of every class and color will surely qualify as a work of the flesh. False accusers (2 Timothy 3:3), those who make verbal assaults on others, are engaged in fleshly works. So, too, are the backbiters (Romans 1:30), because backbiting is followed by biting back, and the word battles which follow are as disruptive of unity as heresy. Whisperers (Romans 1:29), those who practice secret slander, are included. The double-tongued (1 Timothy 3:8), join the club by speaking out of both sides of their mouths—"Saying a thing to one person and giving a different view of it to another" (Vine). The incessant wrangling which galls and wears people out (Paul calls it "perverse disputings," 1 Timothy 6:5) will be at home here.
And without doubt there are numerous "deeds of the body" not specified in Galatians 5:10-21 which are, nevertheless, the same as or similar to the works of the flesh. The despiteful (Romans 1:30) is a "violent, insolent, injurious person" (Vine) and is far from walking in the Spirit. Confusion (1 Corinthians 14:33; James 3:16) takes its place with seditions, revolution or anarchy within the local assembly. Inventors of evil (Romans 1:30) are dominated by the flesh, plotting and scheming to introduce what is morally and ethically wrong and that which is ultimately "injurious, destructive, baneful, pernicious" (Vine), all in antithesis to the fruit of the Spirit. Banquetings ("not simply a banquet but a drinking bout, a carousal, 1 Peter 4:3"—Vine) and surfeiting ("the giddiness and headache resulting from excessive wine-bibbing, a drunken nausea," Luke 21:34—Vine) both bear a family resemblance to drunkenness, a work of the flesh. Deceit (Romans 1:29) and guile (1 Peter 2:1), different translations of the same Greek word meaning "a bait, snare; hence, craft, deceit, guile" (Vine), are descriptive of one who is bent on another's harm. "How dwelleth the love of God (a fruit of the Spirit) in him?" The unmerciful (Romans 1:31), pitiless and unforgiving, have none ofthe traits of the Father who is both pitiful (James 5:11) and forgiving (1 Timothy 1:13-15).
The traits of character, thoughts, words, and deeds which we have been describing are sordid indeed. Those who possess such traits, think such thoughts, speak such words, who habitually do such deeds may be aptly described as profane (1 Timothy 1:9). They lack "all relationship or affinity to God" (Cremer, as quoted by Vine). Make no mistake about it. THEY WHICH
DO SUCH THINGS SHALL NOT INHERIT THE KINGDOM OF GOD.
Circle the Wagons
How, then, do we deal with works of the flesh? Paul gives a clue when he says, "Only use not liberty for an occasion to the flesh" (Galatians 5:13).
"Occasion" is the Greek aphorme, "a place from which a movement or attack is made, a base of operations" (Thayer). "In military language a bridgehead. An aphorme is the point at which an attack can be launched with the greatest possibility of success" (Barclay). He also says, "The body with all its instincts, mental, emotional and physical, is the bridgehead where sin can launch its attack with the greatest prospect of success." We must not allow that to happen. Like the early pioneers, we must learn to circle the wagons so as to afford the greatest possible protection from the enemy's onslaught regardless of the direction from which it comes.
Paul's analysis of the human dilemma is that there are only three possible ways to live. One is the way of legalism, "but that no man is justified by the law in the sight of God, it is evident." (Galatians 3:11).
The second is the way of license, the way of the flesh — and "they which do such things shall not inherit the kingdom of God."
The third, and the one recommended by Paul, is the way of liberty, "for brethren, ye have been called unto liberty" (Galatians 5:13). This is the lifestyle of those who "walk in the Spirit" (v. 16), who are "led of the Spirit" (v. 18), who "live in the Spirit" (v. 25). And this life begins with crucifixion!
But how is man to crucify his flesh? Abstaining from every form of evil is only the negative part; on the positive side there must be newness of moral life (Romans 6:4), testing all things and holding fast that which is good (1 Thessalonians 5:21-22). The first step is for a man to admit that the sinful drives in human nature deserve to be crucified, and that he must have nothing more to do with them. Then he puts himself so completely under control of the love of Christ, who died and was raised from the dead (2 Corinthians 5:15), that he no longer lives for himself, but suffers with Christ and is thereby transformed by beholding his glory (2 Corinthians 3:18). He undertakes a mission for Christ and becomes so busy in the service of others that all sinful "flesh-works" die of starvation (2 Corinthians 4:8-10). He nourishes his new life in the Spirit by thinking about whatever is true and honorable, just and pure, gracious, excellent, and praiseworthy (Philippians 4:8). He co-operates to build the Christian society, and thereby he himself is encouraged and built up (1 Thessalonians 4:10-11). In short, he lives and walks with the Spirit, which is the most strenuous of all ways of living (The Interpreter's Bible).
Coffman puts it this way:
“Continuing to walk in the Spirit, entering and continuing the thoughts and meditations of the heart upon the teachings of the Lord, actively seeking to maintain identity with the mind of Christ, consciousness of the indwelling Father, Son and Holy Spirit—these things will indeed "crucify" the lusts and evil imaginations which feed them.”
Wuest offers these insights:
“The responsibility of the saint is to desire to live a Christlike life, to depend upon the Holy Spirit for the power to live that life, and to step out in faith and live that life. This fulfilled, will bring all the infinite resources of grace to the aid of the saint, and put in operation all the activities of the Spirit in his behalf.”
The Holy Spirit spelled it out for us in Paul's letter to the Romans (12:1, Amplified) "I appeal to you therefore, brethren, and beg of you in view of [all] the mercies of God, to make a decisive dedication of your bodies-presenting all your members and faculties—as a living sacrifice, holy [devoted, consecrated] and well pleasing to God, which is your reasonable [rational, intelligent] service and spiritual worship."
The divine resources available for destroying the works of the flesh and replacing them with the fruit of the Spirit are adequate and limitless. Yet man must cooperate in the grand enterprise by exercising his own will. "The great general fact of our Christian life must be that, with masterly will, we control the flesh. The exceptions are to be accidental and unwilled" (Lard). John Oxenham wrote:
“To every man there openeth
A high Way and a low:
And every man decideth
The way his soul shall go.
God help us to make right decisions.
Bibliography
Bales, James D., Soils and Seeds of Sectarianism, Kansas City, Mo.: The Old Paths Book Club, 1947.
Barclay, William, Flesh and Spirit, Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1962. The Daily Bible Study Series, Philadelphia, Pa.: The Westminster Press, 1976. The Mind of St. Paul, New York: Harper and Row, 1975.
Bartlett, C. Norman, Galatians and You, Chicago, Ill.: Moody Press, 1948.
Campbell, Alexander, The Christian System, Nashville, Tenn.: Gospel Advocate Company, 1980.
Coffman, James Burton, Commentary on Galatians, Austin, Tex.: Firm Foundation Publishing House, 1977. Commentary on Romans, Austin, Tex.: Firm Foundation Publishing House, 1973.
Graham, Billy, The Holy Spirit, Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1978. The Interpreter's Bible, Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 1953.
Jones, Jerry, From Slavery to Sonship, Nashville, Tenn.: Gospel Advocate Co., 1989.
Ketcherside, W. Carl, Heaven Help Us, Cincinnati, Ohio: The Standard Pub. Co., 1974.
Moffitt, Jerry, "The Works of the Flesh Are These," Exegetical Studies of Great Bible Themes, Bedford, TX: Christian Supply Center, 1986.
The Pulpit Commentary, New York: Funk and Wagnalls Co., 1950.
Thayer, John Henry, A Greek-English Lexicon of The New Testament, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1889.
Vincent, Marvin R., Word Studies in the New Testament, Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1957.
Vine, W. E., Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words, Westwood, NJ.: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1964.
Wuest, Kenneth S., Word Studies, Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1957.
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